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  Introduction to Communication and Networking What is Signal ? A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying data from one system or network to another. The signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon. In electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any time-varying voltage that is an electromagnetic wave which carries information. A signal can also be defined as an observable change in quality such as quantity. There are two main types of signals: Analog signal and Digital signal. Analog Signal Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity represents another time-based variable. These kind of signals works with physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc. Here, are essential characteristics of Analog Signal  These type of electronic signals are time-varying  Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negati...

Disadvantages:- Optical Communication System Microwave System 1. Expensive transmitter and receiver. 1. Simple and less expensive transmitter and receiver. 2. Difficult coupling. 2. Easy coupling. 3. Power transmission depends upon the quantum efficiency of light source (LED or LASER). 3. Output power is directly coupled to the transmission line. APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS:- 1) Long distance tele communications:- Long distance telephone carriers use optical fibers to carry the plain old telephone service (POTS) across their high speed “backbone” systems That carry thousands of voice signals between regions of country. The telephone industries first widespread use of fiber optics was between the central offices which are several kms apart and even, these are connected by fiber cables operating at 800-900nm. 2) Medical Applications:- The first commercial applications for fiber optics were medical. Bunaled fibers can deliver illumination light to remote regions...

    THE GENERAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AND ANALOG OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Diagram 1 represents the general communication system. The function is to convey the information from the information source over the transmission medium og destination.  OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS:- 1) Information source:-  Any communication system serves to communicate either a massage or information, this massage originates in the information source. The message can be in the form of words, group of words, code symbols etc., out of these only the desired message is selected and conveyed. The part of the message which is conveyed is called information. 2) Transmitter:-  The message from the information source may or may not be in electrical nature. If the message is not an electrical signal, then it has to be converted into an electrical signal by means of transducer.  For example, in radio broadcast transmitter, a microphone converts the information in the form of sound wav...

  HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT  In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using light beam. The photophone proposed by Bell just four years after the invention of telephone modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance of 200m.  However, some investigation of optical communications continued in early 1900s but its use was limited to low capacity communication links. It was due to lack of suitable light sources and the problem that light is restricted to line of sight and is severely affected by rain , fog, dust and atmospheric turbulence. Therefore, in ensuring years, an increasingly larger portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was utilized for conveying information transfer through radio and microwaves which provide to be most suitable.  From radio and microwave communication systems, we expect more capacity. The information carrying capacity is directly linked to bandwidth frequency extent of the modul...

  7P's of Marketing mix :-  1.Product  2.Place  3.Price  4. Promotion  5. People  6. Processes  7. Physical Evidence   1. Product :- The Product should fit the task consumers want it for, it should work and should be What the consumers are expecting to get. To begin with, develop the habit hbo looking at your product as though you were an outside marketing consultant brought in lo help your company decide whether or not it's in the right business at this time. Ask critical questions such as, "s your current product or service, or mix of products and services, appropriate and suitable for the market and the customers of today? Whenever you're having difficulty selling as much of your products or services as you'd like, you need to develop the habit of assessing your business honestly and asking, "Are these the right products or services for our customers today?" Is there any product or service you're offering today that, knowing what you ...

  Marketing concept:- As businessmen have come to recognize that Marketing is virtually important to the success of a firm, an entirely new way of business thinking a new philosophy. Which I'd known as "Marketing concepts' '.    The concepts is based upon three fundamental benefits they are:-     1.all company planning and operations should be consumer oriented.   2. The goal of the firm should be profitable sales and not volume for sake of volume alone. 3. All Marketing activities in the firm should be organizational coordinate. Evaluation of Marketing concept:-     Production concept:-    An operation bases concept where the consumer expects products that are easily available and affordable. Here the business focuses on production efficiency. Lowering cost and mass distribution. This concept works in developing economies where the race is more for the products than the features it offers.     Product concept-    A...

  Basic types: - Types of Marketing:- 1. Physics market:- physical market is set up where buyers can physically meet the sellers and purchase the desired mechanism from them in exchange of money. Shopping malls , department stores, retail stores, are examples of physical markets.       2.virtual market/ non physical market :-                      In such a market, buyers purchase goods through the internet. In such a market buyers and sellers can not meet or interact physically. Instead the transaction Is done through the internet. Example: ebay rediff shopping .     3.auction market :-   In an auction market the seller sells his goods to one who is the highest bidder.     4. Market for intermediate goods :-              Such markets sell raw materials required for the final production of the other goods.     5.Black market ...

  Embedded system   Definition:- An embedded system is a microprocessor-or microcontroller-based system of hardware and software designed to perform dedicated functions within a larger mechanical or electrical system.  What is an Embedded System  An embedded system is a microprocessorbased computer hardware system with software that is designed to perform a dedicated function, either as an independent system or as a part of a large system. At the core is an integrated circuit designed to carry out computation for real-time operations. Complexities range from a single microcontroller to a suite of processors with connected peripherals and networks; from no user interface to complex graphical user interfaces. The complexity of an embedded system varies significantly depending on the task for which it is designed. Embedded system applications range from digital watches and microwaves to hybrid vehicles and avionics. As much as 98 percent of all microprocessors manufactu...

  Functional marketing :- Functional of Marketing:-      Marketing is a process that companies of all the activities involved from the concepts of the products all the way till it the first consumer. So there are a lot of activities in this process which are call the Functions of Marketing. Let us take a look. 1.finding the best distribution channel 2. Financing an enterprise 3. Deep market research 4. Setting prices 5. Product and service Management  6.Promotional channel 7. Matching products to customer 8. Identify consumer Needs 9. Planning 10. Product development 11. Standardisation and grading 12. Packing and labelling 13. Branding 14. Setting up customer support service 15. Promotion 16. Distribution 17. Transportation 18. Warehousing 19. Market information 20 . Risk function 21. Exchange function 22. Market Planning 1.finding the best distribution channel: - Distribution is about deciding basicly how you get the goods and services you want to...

  INTRODUCTION :- MARKETING 1. Marketing is defined by the American Marketing association as "the activity act as of instructions, and process for creating, communication, delivery,and enhancing offerings that have value for customer ,client partner, and society at large" the term developed from the original meaning which referred literally so going to market with goods for sale.from a sales process engineering perspective, Marketing is a "a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other function of a business aimed at achieving customer interested and satisfaction ". Features of Marketing :- Marketing is a science as well as part Exchange is essence of Marketing Marketing is good oriented Marketing starts with consumer and ends with consumer Needs and wants Creating a market offering Customer value Exchange mechanism 1.Marketing is a science well as art:- Marketing has involved the economy but it has a closer relationship with...